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Child Education Journal
Child Education Journal Vol. 8 No. 2 (2026) 305-336

e-ISSN: 2685-1903 p-ISSN: 2685-189X
Open Acces Policy | SECONDARY: Jurnal Inovasi Pendidikan Menengah

DOI: 10.33086/cej.v8i2.8557

. RESEARCH ARTICLE

Parental Emotional Literacy as a Protective Factor Against
Anxiety and Depression in Foundation Phase Children: An
Integrative Conceptual Framework
Judith Ngunan Age1*, and Susan Thuketana²
1,2

University of Pretoria, South Africa
Correspondence: agejudith@gmail.com
Article History: Received: Mar 18, 2026 • Revised: Jul 25, 2026 • Accepted: Aug 15, 2026 • Published: Aug 30,
2026
ABSTRACT
Anxiety and depression during the foundation phase of childhood (ages 5–8) present developmental concerns that may affect
children's emotional well-being, social relationships, and educational experiences. This study aims to develop an integrative
conceptual framework explaining how parental emotional literacy may function as a protective factor against anxiety and
depression in foundation phase children. Using a conceptual approach, the study synthesizes theoretical and empirical literature
through the integration of attachment theory, social learning theory, and developmental psychopathology. The conceptual
synthesis identifies four interconnected dimensions of parental emotional literacy: emotional awareness, emotional
understanding, emotional expression, and emotional regulation. These dimensions are theoretically linked to four mechanisms
of influence: neurobiological development, parent–child co-regulation, emotional socialization, and cognitive development. The
proposed framework further identifies attachment security, emotional competence, social competence, and cognitive resilience
as protective pathways potentially associated with reduced vulnerability to anxiety and depression. The synthesis highlights how
emotionally responsive parenting, supportive communication, emotional modeling, and guided regulation may contribute to
children's psychological well-being and adaptive development. The study concludes that parental emotional literacy provides a
theoretically grounded foundation for developing preventive approaches within families, early childhood education, and schoolbased parental support programs. However, the proposed relationships require further empirical validation through longitudinal
and intervention-based research.

Copyright and License
© 2026 The Author(s). Published by Universitas Nahdlatul Ulama Surabaya, Indonesia.
This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License (CC BY-SA 4.0).
License: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/
Journal License Policy: https://journal2.unusa.ac.id/index.php/CEJ/License

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ABSTRAK
Kecemasan dan depresi pada masa awal kanak-kanak (usia 5–8 tahun) menghadirkan masalah perkembangan yang dapat
memengaruhi kesejahteraan emosional, hubungan sosial, dan pengalaman pendidikan anak. Studi ini bertujuan untuk
mengembangkan kerangka konseptual integratif yang menjelaskan bagaimana literasi emosional orang tua dapat berfungsi
sebagai faktor pelindung terhadap kecemasan dan depresi pada anak di usia tersebut. Dengan menggunakan pendekatan
konseptual, studi ini menyintesis literatur teoretis dan empiris melalui penggabungan teori kelekatan (*attachment theory*), teori
pembelajaran sosial, dan psikopatologi perkembangan. Sintesis konseptual ini mengidentifikasi empat dimensi literasi emosional
orang tua yang saling berkaitan: kesadaran emosional, pemahaman emosional, ekspresi emosional, dan regulasi emosional.
Keempat dimensi ini secara teoretis dihubungkan dengan empat mekanisme pengaruh: perkembangan neurobiologis, regulasi
bersama (*co-regulation*) antara orang tua dan anak, sosialisasi emosional, serta perkembangan kognitif. Kerangka yang
diusulkan juga mengidentifikasi keamanan kelekatan, kompetensi emosional, kompetensi sosial, dan resiliensi kognitif sebagai
jalur perlindungan yang berpotensi mengurangi kerentanan terhadap kecemasan dan depresi. Sintesis ini menyoroti bagaimana
pola asuh yang responsif secara emosional, komunikasi yang mendukung, pemodelan emosional, dan regulasi terbimbing dapat
berkontribusi terhadap kesejahteraan psikologis serta perkembangan adaptif anak. Studi ini menyimpulkan bahwa literasi
emosional orang tua menyediakan landasan teoretis yang kuat untuk mengembangkan pendekatan preventif dalam lingkup
keluarga, pendidikan anak usia dini, dan program dukungan orang tua di sekolah. Namun, hubungan yang diusulkan ini
memerlukan validasi empiris lebih lanjut melalui penelitian longitudinal maupun penelitian berbasis intervensi.
How to cite: Age, J. N., & Thuketana, S. (2026). Parental Emotional Literacy as a Protective Factor Against Anxiety and
Depression in Foundation Phase Children: An Integrative Conceptual Framework. Child Education Journal, 8(2), 305–336.
https://doi.org/10.33086/cej.v8i2.8557

Keywords: Parental Emotional Literacy; Foundation Phase Children; Anxiety and Depression; Emotional
Socialization; Conceptual Framework.

1. INTRODUCTION

Mental health and emotional well-being in early childhood have become significant concerns in educational
and developmental research, particularly because early emotional experiences may influence children's
subsequent social relationships, learning participation, and psychological adjustment. The foundation
phase, encompassing approximately five to eight years of age in the present conceptual framework,
represents an important developmental period during which children progressively acquire emotional
awareness, communication skills, self-regulation, and adaptive coping capacities. Research concerning
emotional competence, childhood psychological adjustment, and educational participation has highlighted
the interconnected nature of emotional development and children's experiences within family and school
environments (Denham et al., 2020; Lunkenheimer et al., 2020; Price & Kiel, 2022). Furthermore,
investigations into childhood mental health and family circumstances indicate that emotional development
cannot be separated from broader socioeconomic, relational, and environmental conditions (Grüning
Parache et al., 2024; Bozicevic et al., 2023). Recent studies have also emphasized the significance of
parenting practices, emotional responsiveness, and supportive educational relationships in understanding
children's developmental experiences (Morris et al., 2022; Gebre et al., 2025; Havighurst et al., 2025).
Nevertheless, evidence concerning broad childhood populations should not automatically be interpreted as
age-specific evidence for foundation-phase children. This developmental distinction is important because
emotional difficulties may be expressed differently across ages and contexts. Consequently, examining

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parental emotional literacy within the foundation phase offers a relevant educational perspective for
understanding potential protective processes associated with children's emotional well-being.
Despite increasing scholarly attention to early emotional development, identifying and responding
appropriately to anxiety, depressive symptoms, and emotional difficulties among young children remains a
substantial challenge. During the foundation phase, emotional distress may be expressed through
behavioural changes, withdrawal, irritability, difficulties in interpersonal interaction, or physical
complaints, making its interpretation dependent on developmental characteristics and contextual
information. Importantly, these manifestations do not necessarily indicate clinically diagnosed anxiety or
depressive disorders. Research concerning parental emotion regulation and child anxiety illustrates the
complexity of interactions between parental characteristics, child emotional responses, and developmental
adjustment (Price & Kiel, 2022; Lunkenheimer et al., 2020). Similarly, studies addressing family structure,
socioeconomic conditions, and parenting environments suggest that childhood emotional difficulties are
embedded within multiple interconnected influences rather than attributable to a single parental
characteristic (Grüning Parache et al., 2024; Bozicevic et al., 2023). Further challenges concern variations
in family emotional communication, cultural expectations, available educational support, and children's
developmental needs (Cañas et al., 2022; Morris et al., 2022). Although parental emotional competence
may contribute to supportive interactions, it should not be treated as the exclusive determinant of children's
psychological outcomes. Therefore, the central problem addressed in this paper concerns how parental
emotional literacy can be conceptually understood as one potential protective influence while
acknowledging developmental variability, contextual conditions, and the distinction between emotional
difficulties and clinically established mental health disorders.
Previous research related to parental emotional literacy, emotional socialization, and children's
psychological adjustment has developed through several complementary scholarly directions. Research
concerning parental emotion regulation and childhood anxiety was conducted by Price and Kiel (2022),
whose longitudinal investigation examined relationships among maternal and child emotion regulation,
maternal emotion socialization, and child anxiety; however, its specific relational focus does not provide a
comprehensive multidimensional parental emotional literacy framework. Lunkenheimer et al. (2020)
investigated dynamic parent–child emotional socialization processes, contributing a relational perspective
without directly establishing the protective pathways proposed in this paper. Morris et al. (2022) examined
emotion socialization across childhood and adolescence, offering broad developmental explanations that
require further specification for children aged five to eight. Denham et al. (2020) addressed emotional
competence and social competence in preschool development, but their emphasis does not independently
explain the complete relationship between parental capacities and internalizing outcomes. Nimphy et al.
(2023) synthesized evidence concerning parent-to-offspring fear transmission through modelling, although
fear transmission represents a narrower construct than the four dimensions of parental emotional literacy.
Havighurst et al. (2025) discussed the theoretical foundations and implementation of the Tuning in to Kids
program, providing intervention-related insights without validating the integrative framework developed
here. Together, these investigations establish important foundations while demonstrating the need to
connect their distinct emphases within a carefully bounded conceptual model.
The scientific contribution of the present paper lies in developing an integrative conceptual explanation of
parental emotional literacy as a potential protective factor against anxiety and depression in foundationphase children. Existing scholarship has examined parental emotion socialization, dyadic emotional
interactions, parenting interventions, emotional competence, and developmental vulnerability through
different analytical perspectives (Denham et al., 2020; Lunkenheimer et al., 2020; Price & Kiel, 2022;
Morris et al., 2022). Nevertheless, these contributions do not, individually, constitute the particular

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theoretical organization advanced in the present manuscript. Rather than introducing parental emotional
literacy as an entirely new construct, this study reorganizes established emotional capacities into four
interconnected dimensions: emotional awareness, emotional understanding, emotional expression, and
emotional regulation. These dimensions are then conceptually connected to neurobiological processes,
parent–child co-regulation, emotional socialization, and cognitive development, followed by proposed
protective pathways involving attachment security, emotional competence, social competence, and
cognitive resilience. Research addressing responsive caregiving, emotional socialization,
neurodevelopment, and parenting interventions provides relevant theoretical and empirical foundations for
considering these relationships (Luby et al., 2020; Morris et al., 2022; Santana-Ferrándiz et al., 2025;
Havighurst et al., 2025). The resulting novelty is therefore an explicit multilevel conceptual mapping of
parental emotional capacities, candidate mechanisms, intermediate protective pathways, and possible
developmental outcomes. Importantly, this contribution remains theoretical and does not establish that the
proposed relationships are causal or that the framework has demonstrated preventive effectiveness.
Although contemporary research offers substantial insights into children's emotional development and
parenting practices, several conceptual and evidentiary gaps remain relevant to the present inquiry. First,
investigations of specific relationships, such as maternal emotional regulation and child anxiety, do not
necessarily explain how multiple parental emotional capacities operate together within a broader
developmental framework (Price & Kiel, 2022; Lunkenheimer et al., 2020). Second, research on emotional
competence and emotional socialization provides valuable developmental knowledge but does not
independently establish the complete sequence linking parental emotional literacy dimensions, potential
mechanisms, protective pathways, and reduced vulnerability to internalizing symptoms (Denham et al.,
2020; Morris et al., 2022). Third, studies addressing parenting interventions and emotional responsiveness
offer practical insights without demonstrating that the precise framework proposed here has been
empirically validated (Havighurst et al., 2025; Santana-Ferrándiz et al., 2025). Fourth, research involving
different age groups and family contexts raises questions about the direct applicability of findings to
children aged five to eight (Bozicevic et al., 2023; Grüning Parache et al., 2024). The resulting research gap
is not an asserted absence of scholarship on parenting and emotional development, but the need for a clearly
articulated conceptual integration that distinguishes established associations from hypothetical
mechanisms, identifies contextual limitations, and specifies relationships requiring future investigation.
Addressing this gap can strengthen the theoretical coherence of research connecting parental emotional
literacy with developmental protection.
The theoretical foundation of this study integrates attachment theory, social learning theory, and
developmental psychopathology as complementary perspectives for understanding parental emotional
literacy and children's psychological adjustment. Attachment theory, .ly developed by Bowlby (1969),
explains the developmental significance of responsive caregiving and relational security, while recent
scholarship has continued examining parental sensitivity and socioemotional development within
attachment-related relationships (Price & Kiel, 2022; Santana-Ferrándiz et al., 2025). Social learning
theory, developed by Bandura (1977), provides an explanation of how children may acquire emotional
responses and coping practices through observation, modelling, reinforcement, and guided interaction.
Contemporary research concerning dynamic parent–child processes and emotion socialization reinforces
the importance of these interpersonal learning mechanisms (Lunkenheimer et al., 2020; Morris et al., 2022).
Developmental psychopathology, meanwhile, emphasizes changing developmental pathways and the
interaction of risk and protective conditions across individual, relational, and environmental contexts (Barry
et al., 2023; Grüning Parache et al., 2024). These perspectives perform different but interconnected
explanatory functions: attachment theory addresses relational security, social learning theory explains the
acquisition of emotional practices, and developmental psychopathology contextualizes developmental

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vulnerability and protection. Their integration allows parental emotional literacy to be examined through
relationships, learning processes, and developmental conditions rather than through a single explanatory
mechanism. Accordingly, the framework provides a theoretically grounded structure for formulating
possible pathways without assuming that their causal sequence has already been established.
Within this theoretical integration, parental emotional literacy is conceptualized through emotional
awareness, emotional understanding, emotional expression, and emotional regulation in parent–child
relationships. Emotional awareness concerns parents' recognition of their own emotions and their children's
emotional experiences, whereas emotional understanding concerns the interpretation of emotional causes,
functions, and developmental meanings. Emotional expression refers to supportive verbal and nonverbal
communication, while emotional regulation concerns parents' capacity to manage their emotional responses
during interpersonal challenges. Research addressing parenting and emotion socialization provides a
conceptual basis for understanding these interrelated capacities (Lunkenheimer et al., 2020; Morris et al.,
2022; Havighurst et al., 2025). In the proposed framework, these dimensions may contribute to
developmental processes through four mechanisms: neurobiological processes associated with responsive
caregiving, parent–child co-regulation, emotional socialization, and cognitive development. These
mechanisms are subsequently linked to four proposed protective pathways: attachment security, emotional
competence, social competence, and cognitive resilience. Studies examining neurodevelopment, parental
sensitivity, emotional competence, and parenting interventions provide relevant support for considering
aspects of these connections (Luby et al., 2020; Denham et al., 2020; Santana-Ferrándiz et al., 2025;
Havighurst et al., 2025). However, the four-dimensional organization and its proposed relationships should
be understood as a conceptual synthesis rather than a newly validated measurement instrument or an
empirically confirmed developmental model. Such distinctions are essential for maintaining conceptual
precision and avoiding unsupported causal interpretations.
The importance of the present inquiry extends beyond describing parental emotional competence because
it considers how family emotional practices may inform educational support during a formative period of
children's development. Studies concerning emotional competence and parenting interventions have
highlighted potential connections between supportive emotional interactions, developmental adjustment,
and children's participation in social environments (Denham et al., 2020; Havighurst et al., 2025; Morris et
al., 2022). At the same time, research examining teacher socioemotional competence emphasizes the
relevance of emotional support within educational settings, although teacher-focused findings cannot be
treated as direct evidence for parental emotional literacy outcomes (Gebre et al., 2025; Lunkenheimer et
al., 2020). The study is particularly relevant because its framework connects parental emotional capacities
with developmental processes that may have implications for parent education, parent–teacher
collaboration, and early childhood support programs. Furthermore, evidence concerning differences in
caregiving practices, family circumstances, and socioeconomic conditions indicates that emotionally
supportive practices require sensitivity to children's developmental and cultural contexts (Bozicevic et al.,
2023; Grüning Parache et al., 2024; Cañas et al., 2022). Consequently, the proposed model has potential
value as an organizing framework for identifying educational support priorities, rather than as a clinically
validated prevention program. Its distinctive contribution is to articulate how relational, social-learning,
cognitive, and developmental considerations can inform future investigation of parental emotional literacy
and children's emotional well-being.
Based on the preceding theoretical discussion, previous research, and identified conceptual gaps, this study
aims to develop an integrative conceptual framework explaining how parental emotional literacy may
function as a protective factor against anxiety and depression in foundation-phase children aged
approximately five to eight years. More specifically, the study seeks to synthesize attachment theory, social

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learning theory, and developmental psychopathology; organize parental emotional literacy into four
interrelated dimensions; examine potential neurobiological, co-regulatory, emotional-socialization, and
cognitive mechanisms; and identify proposed pathways involving attachment security, emotional
competence, social competence, and cognitive resilience. These objectives are informed by research
concerning emotional competence, parent–child interactions, parenting practices, and developmental
adjustment (Denham et al., 2020; Lunkenheimer et al., 2020; Morris et al., 2022; Price & Kiel, 2022). The
study also seeks to clarify how developmental variability, family circumstances, cultural context, and
educational environments may condition the interpretation and application of these proposed relationships
(Bozicevic et al., 2023; Grüning Parache et al., 2024; Havighurst et al., 2025). Methodologically, the paper
employs a non-systematic narrative conceptual synthesis of theoretical and selected empirical literature
already incorporated into the manuscript; it does not collect new participant data or experimentally evaluate
intervention effectiveness. Ultimately, the study seeks to provide a theoretically coherent basis for future
empirical investigation and contextually responsive educational approaches while maintaining a clear
distinction between existing evidence, conceptual propositions, and outcomes requiring further validation.

2. RESEARCH METHODS

The present study adopts a conceptual research approach to examine parental emotional literacy as a
potential protective factor against anxiety and depression among foundation-phase children aged
approximately five to eight years. The methodological orientation is grounded in the integration of
attachment theory, social learning theory, and developmental psychopathology, supported by relevant
theoretical and empirical literature. The study focuses on four dimensions of parental emotional literacy—
emotional awareness, emotional understanding, emotional expression, and emotional regulation—and
examines their proposed relationships with neurobiological processes, parent–child co-regulation,
emotional socialization, cognitive development, and protective developmental pathways. The approach
draws upon existing research concerning parent–child emotional interactions, emotion socialization,
developmental adjustment, and culturally responsive parenting (Lunkenheimer et al., 2020; Morris et al.,
2022; Price & Kiel, 2022; Bozicevic et al., 2023). Methodologically, the study employs a non-systematic
narrative conceptual synthesis based on secondary scholarly sources without primary data collection,
experimental implementation, or psychometric testing. Consequently, the proposed framework represents
a theoretically derived conceptual product rather than an empirically validated intervention or measurement
instrument.
2.1. Research Design
This study adopts an integrative conceptual design supported by a non-systematic narrative synthesis of
theoretical and empirical literature. The design organizes existing knowledge into a framework connecting
four parental emotional literacy dimensions—emotional awareness, emotional understanding, emotional
expression, and emotional regulation—with candidate developmental mechanisms and protective
pathways. Attachment theory provides the relational foundation, social learning theory explains emotional
modelling and learning, and developmental psychopathology contextualizes differences in vulnerability
and protective conditions. Contemporary scholarship on emotional competence, parent–child interactions,
and parenting interventions provides the supporting literature for this conceptual integration (Denham et

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al., 2020; Morris et al., 2022; Havighurst et al., 2025). The research design emphasizes theoretical
interpretation and conceptual integration rather than systematic evidence retrieval, experimental
investigation, or statistical hypothesis testing. Accordingly, the conceptual framework is developed through
the examination and integration of existing scholarly knowledge, providing a foundation for identifying
relevant documentary materials and interpreting their theoretical contributions.
2.2. Data Collection Framework
The documentary materials examined in this study comprise theoretical writings, empirical research
articles, scholarly reviews, and intervention-related publications relevant to parental emotional literacy and
children's psychological development. These documentary sources address parental emotional literacy,
emotional socialization, attachment relationships, emotion regulation, cognitive development, and
childhood psychological adjustment. Relevant literature includes research on parent–child emotional
processes, maternal and child emotion regulation, fear modelling, family circumstances, and parental
support programs (Lunkenheimer et al., 2020; Price & Kiel, 2022; Nimphy et al., 2023; Grüning Parache
et al., 2024). The study therefore relies on secondary documentary evidence rather than questionnaires,
interviews, observations, or clinical assessments involving newly recruited participants. The evidencegathering approach is characterized as a non-systematic narrative examination of selected scholarly
publications rather than a systematic literature review involving predefined search strategies, database
screening, or quantitative evidence-selection procedures. The collected documentary materials provide the
conceptual basis for examining relationships among parental emotional capacities, developmental
mechanisms, protective pathways, and potential psychological outcomes.
2.3 Analytical Framework and Types of Analysis
The analytical orientation involves interpreting the relationships among parental emotional literacy,
developmental mechanisms, protective pathways, and proposed child outcomes. Existing literature is
considered across three theoretical perspectives to distinguish relational processes, learned emotional
practices, and developmental risk–protection dynamics. The conceptual analysis focuses on connections
among parental emotional awareness, understanding, expression, regulation, co-regulation, emotional
socialization, cognitive development, and attachment security. These relationships are informed by previous
investigations of emotional competence, parenting practices, and child emotional development (Denham et
al., 2020; Lunkenheimer et al., 2020; Morris et al., 2022). The analysis does not calculate statistical effects
or claim causal confirmation. Instead, it organizes the research questions around theoretical integration,
proposed relationships, and potential educational implications. To clarify the relationship between the
research questions and analytical orientation, Table 1 presents the conceptual questions and corresponding
types of analysis. These questions are aligned with the research objectives and theoretical framework to
guide the interpretation and integration of relevant scholarly evidence.
Research Question
RQ1

RQ2

Table 1. Research Questions and Types of Analysis
Research Question
How can parental emotional literacy be conceptually
understood through emotional awareness, understanding,
expression, and regulation in foundation-phase children’s
development?
How can attachment theory, social learning theory, and
developmental psychopathology explain the proposed
relationships between parental emotional literacy,
developmental mechanisms, and protective pathways?

Types of Analysis
Conceptual definition and
thematic
synthesis
of
parental emotional literacy
dimensions
Integrative
theoretical
analysis and conceptual
relationship mapping

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RQ3

What potential implications does the proposed parental Critical
interpretive
emotional literacy framework offer for understanding synthesis and implications
emotional well-being and informing preventive educational analysis
support for foundation-phase children?
Source: Conceptual synthesis based on the research objectives and theoretical framework, informed by Denham et al. (2020),
Lunkenheimer et al. (2020), Morris et al. (2022), and Price and Kiel (2022)

Table 1 connects each conceptual question with an appropriate form of analysis. RQ1 addresses the
definition and organization of parental emotional literacy; RQ2 examines the integration of the three
explanatory theories; and RQ3 considers the implications of the framework for early childhood education
and emotional support. These analyses provide conceptual interpretations rather than empirically measured
relationships. By making the analytical focus explicit, the table strengthens the methodological coherence
between the research objectives, literature synthesis, and proposed theoretical contribution (Denham et al.,
2020; Morris et al., 2022; Havighurst et al., 2025). This analytical organization also clarifies the function
of documentary materials as the principal sources of evidence supporting conceptual development.
2.4 Research Instruments
The study does not employ questionnaires, interview protocols, psychological tests, or classroom
observation schedules because its methodological orientation is based on conceptual analysis of existing
scholarly literature. The principal analytical materials comprise theoretical and empirical publications
addressing parental emotional literacy, emotional socialization, and developmental mechanisms. For
analytical purposes, four parental emotional literacy dimensions are used as conceptual indicators:
emotional awareness, emotional understanding, emotional expression, and emotional regulation. Emotional
cue recognition, emotion interpretation, supportive communication, and parental emotional regulation serve
as illustrative sub-indicators for interpreting the conceptual characteristics of emotionally responsive
parenting. These categories are grounded in the study's conceptual definitions and relevant research on
emotional competence and emotion socialization (Denham et al., 2020; Morris et al., 2022; Havighurst et
al., 2025). The conceptual indicators are not presented as psychometrically validated measurement items or
standardized assessment instruments. Instead, they provide an analytical structure for organizing theoretical
relationships and identifying potential dimensions requiring empirical examination in subsequent
investigations.
2.5 Validity and Reliability
The credibility of the conceptual framework depends on the accuracy of the cited literature, clarity of
construct definitions, coherence of theoretical relationships, and transparency concerning the limitations of
the evidence. Theoretical consistency is considered through comparisons between the proposed parental
emotional literacy dimensions and established discussions of emotional competence, parent–child
interaction, and developmental adjustment (Denham et al., 2020; Lunkenheimer et al., 2020; Price & Kiel,
2022). The framework is evaluated conceptually through the correspondence between its theoretical
foundations, proposed mechanisms, and anticipated developmental pathways. Nevertheless, the study does
not include empirical validation procedures such as expert-validation scoring, inter-rater reliability testing,
Cronbach's alpha estimation, test–retest assessment, or statistical model verification. Accordingly, validity
is considered in terms of conceptual coherence and theoretical relevance rather than psychometric or
statistical confirmation. Further expert assessment and empirical investigation are required to determine the
framework's measurement properties, explanatory adequacy, and applicability across developmental and
cultural contexts.

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2.6 Research Subjects and Location
The developmental population of interest comprises foundation-phase children aged approximately five to
eight years and the parents or caregivers whose emotional practices may contribute to children's
development. The study is conceptually situated within early childhood education and developmental
psychology, with particular attention to parent–child emotional interactions and children's psychological
well-being. The authors are affiliated with the University of Pretoria, South Africa; however, the conceptual
research design does not involve fieldwork at a designated educational institution or community research
site. No participants were recruited, and the study does not employ population sampling, sample-size
determination, or direct participant assessment. Instead, the proposed framework addresses an intended
developmental population through the interpretation of existing theoretical and empirical literature. This
orientation acknowledges the importance of cultural and socioeconomic differences in understanding
parenting practices, developmental conditions, and potential protective influences on children's emotional
well-being (Bozicevic et al., 2023; Grüning Parache et al., 2024). The resulting framework therefore
provides a conceptual foundation for future context-specific empirical investigations rather than findings
derived from an observed research sample.
2.7 Data Analysis Techniques
The study's analytical technique is conceptual synthesis, involving the interpretation and organization of
relationships discussed in selected theoretical and empirical literature. The synthesis is organized around
three interpretive operations: identifying relevant concepts, comparing explanations across theoretical
perspectives, and mapping proposed relationships into an integrated framework. Concept identification
focuses on the four dimensions of parental emotional literacy and their relevance to emotionally responsive
parenting. Theoretical comparison examines the complementary explanatory contributions of attachment
theory, social learning theory, and developmental psychopathology. Conceptual relationship mapping
subsequently connects parental emotional capacities with neurobiological processes, parent–child coregulation, emotional socialization, cognitive development, intermediate protective pathways, and potential
psychological outcomes. Studies of parent–child emotional processes, emotional socialization, and
developmental adjustment provide the supporting literature for these conceptual connections
(Lunkenheimer et al., 2020; Morris et al., 2022; Price & Kiel, 2022). These analytical operations provide
an interpretive structure rather than a statistical analysis procedure, and the proposed relationships are
treated as theoretical propositions requiring future empirical evaluation. The resulting synthesis establishes
a conceptual organization for explaining how parental emotional literacy may contribute to children's
emotional well-being within different developmental and contextual conditions.
2.8 Data Collection Techniques
Documentary literature examination serves as the evidence-gathering technique underlying this conceptual
study. The documentary synthesis integrates scholarly publications addressing attachment theory, emotional
modelling, developmental psychopathology, parental emotional competence, and prevention-oriented
educational support. These materials are interpreted according to their relevance to the proposed
dimensions, mechanisms, and developmental pathways (Denham et al., 2020; Luby et al., 2020; Morris et
al., 2022; Havighurst et al., 2025). The examination emphasizes the conceptual relevance and explanatory
contributions of selected publications rather than systematic database retrieval, formal eligibility screening,
or quantitative source-quality assessment. Accordingly, the documentary evidence is used to support
theoretical integration and conceptual interpretation without claiming systematic review procedures or

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comprehensive coverage of all available research. Figure 1 illustrates the organization of the conceptual
synthesis, showing how the three theoretical perspectives inform four parental emotional capacities and
their proposed relationships with developmental mechanisms, protective pathways, and potential
psychological outcomes. The framework represents hypothesized conceptual relationships rather than
empirically confirmed causal pathways.

Figure 1. Conceptual Synthesis Process for Developing the Parental Emotional Literacy Framework
Conceptual synthesis developed from attachment theory, social learning theory, and developmental psychopathology, informed by
Denham et al. (2020), Luby et al. (2020), Morris et al. (2022), and Price and Kiel (2022). The proposed relationships are
theoretical and have not been empirically validated.

Figure 1 illustrates the conceptual synthesis of attachment theory, social learning theory, and developmental
psychopathology in explaining parental emotional literacy. The framework integrates four parental
capacities—emotional awareness, understanding, expression, and regulation—with proposed
neurobiological, co-regulatory, emotional-socialization, and cognitive mechanisms. These mechanisms are
theoretically linked to attachment security, emotional competence, social competence, and cognitive
resilience, potentially contributing to children's emotional well-being (Luby et al., 2020; Lunkenheimer et
al., 2020; Morris et al., 2022). These relationships remain conceptual and require empirical validation.
2.9 Ethical Considerations and Methodological Limitations
This study employs a non-systematic narrative conceptual synthesis of previously published literature
without direct participant involvement, primary data collection, or experimental intervention.
Consequently, participant recruitment and informed consent were not applicable to the research design.
Ethical considerations emphasize child protection, developmental sensitivity, cultural diversity, and the

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distinction between emotional difficulties and clinically diagnosed mental health disorders. Parental
emotional literacy is conceptualized as a potential protective factor rather than the sole determinant of
children's psychological well-being (Bozicevic et al., 2023; Grüning Parache et al., 2024; Havighurst et al.,
2025). Methodological limitations include the absence of a systematic literature-search protocol,
psychometric validation, statistical testing, and empirical assessment of the proposed relationships.
Additionally, variations in participants' ages, geographical contexts, and developmental characteristics
across the cited studies limit generalizability to foundation-phase children. Future research should employ
culturally responsive longitudinal, observational, and intervention-based designs to examine the proposed
developmental mechanisms, protective pathways, and potential prevention outcomes (Price & Kiel, 2022;
Havighurst et al., 2025). Thus, the framework provides a theoretical foundation for subsequent empirical
validation rather than evidence of established clinical or preventive effectiveness.

3. RESULTS

3.1 Identified Dimensions of Parental Emotional Literacy
The conceptual synthesis identifies four interconnected dimensions of parental emotional literacy:
emotional awareness, emotional understanding, emotional expression, and emotional regulation. These
dimensions describe distinct but complementary capacities involved in emotionally responsive parent–child
interactions. Emotional awareness concerns recognizing personal emotional experiences and identifying
children's emotional cues, whereas emotional understanding involves interpreting emotional triggers,
meanings, and developmental characteristics. Emotional expression refers to communicating emotional
experiences through appropriate verbal and nonverbal responses, while emotional regulation concerns
managing parental reactions during emotionally challenging interactions. The synthesis indicates that the
four dimensions perform different functions within emotionally responsive caregiving but cannot be
understood as entirely independent processes. Emotional recognition provides information for
interpretation, understanding informs communication, and regulation supports the consistency of parental
responses. Research concerning dynamic parent–child emotional socialization and emotion-focused
parenting provides a theoretical basis for examining these capacities together (Lunkenheimer et al., 2020;
Morris et al., 2022; Havighurst et al., 2025). The principal finding is a four-dimensional conceptual
organization of parental emotional literacy, rather than a statistically validated measurement structure. Table
2 presents the identified dimensions, their conceptual functions, and their relevance to parental emotional
interactions.
Table 2. Identified Dimensions and Conceptual Characteristics of Parental Emotional Literacy
Conceptual
Parenting-related
Dimension
Conceptual indicator
Supporting literature
characteristic
process
Emotional
Recognition of parental Identification of emotional Awareness of emotional Lunkenheimer et al.
Awareness
and child emotions
cues
changes
and (2020); Morris et al.
expressions
(2022)
Emotional
Interpretation
of Understanding emotional Interpretation
of Morris et al. (2022);
Understanding
emotional causes and needs and developmental emotional triggers and Havighurst
et
al.
meanings
differences
responses
(2025)
Emotional
Communication
of Verbal and nonverbal Supportive expression Lunkenheimer et al.
Expression
emotional experiences
emotional communication and
emotional (2020); Havighurst et
responsiveness
al. (2025)

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Emotional
Regulation

Management
of
emotional reactions

Regulation of parental Emotional
self- Price & Kiel (2022);
responses
during management
and Havighurst
et
al.
interaction
response consistency
(2025)
Source: Conceptual synthesis informed by Lunkenheimer et al. (2020), Morris et al. (2022), Price and Kiel (2022), and Havighurst
et al. (2025).

Table 2 demonstrates that parental emotional literacy encompasses recognition, interpretation,
communication, and regulation rather than a single parenting behavior. The conceptual differentiation is
important because similar outward parental responses may reflect different underlying emotional capacities.
For example, recognizing a child's distress does not necessarily indicate that the caregiver understands its
developmental meaning, while communicating concern does not automatically demonstrate effective
emotional regulation. The synthesis identifies a functional relationship among these dimensions without
establishing a fixed sequence or statistically measured dependency. Lunkenheimer et al. (2020) provide
relevant evidence concerning the dynamic organization of parent–child emotional interactions, whereas
Price and Kiel (2022) examine more specific longitudinal relationships among maternal emotion regulation,
emotion socialization, and child anxiety. These studies address different components of the proposed
construct and therefore cannot be interpreted as independent validations of the complete four-dimensional
framework. Havighurst et al. (2025) further describe the theoretical importance of parental emotional
competence within emotion-focused parenting programs, although evidence concerning an established
intervention does not establish the effectiveness of the framework developed in this study. Accordingly, the
synthesis identifies conceptual convergence across the four dimensions while distinguishing this
convergence from empirical confirmation. This finding establishes the parental capacities examined in the
following analysis of theoretical foundations and developmental relationships.
3.2. Theoretical Relationships Underlying Parental Emotional Literacy
The theoretical synthesis identifies attachment theory, social learning theory, and developmental
psychopathology as three complementary explanatory perspectives underlying parental emotional literacy.
Attachment theory contributes an understanding of relational security, caregiver sensitivity, and emotionally
responsive interactions. Social learning theory explains how children may acquire emotional behaviors
through observation, modelling, reinforcement, and guided participation. Developmental psychopathology
provides a broader explanation of developmental vulnerability, protective conditions, and the interaction
between individual characteristics and environmental influences. The findings indicate that these theoretical
perspectives address different levels of the same developmental problem rather than offering
interchangeable explanations. Attachment theory emphasizes the relational conditions associated with
emotional security; social learning theory concerns processes through which emotional responses may be
learned; and developmental psychopathology examines how risk and protective influences may operate
across developmental contexts. Contemporary research on parental emotional socialization, childhood
adjustment, and family circumstances supports the relevance of these theoretical relationships
(Lunkenheimer et al., 2020; Morris et al., 2022; Barry et al., 2023; Grüning Parache et al., 2024). Figure 2
illustrates how the three theoretical perspectives contribute to the conceptual integration of parental
emotional literacy.

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Figure 2. Integration of Theoretical Perspectives Underlying Parental Emotional Literacy
Source: Conceptual synthesis based on attachment theory, social learning theory, and developmental psychopathology, informed
by Lunkenheimer et al. (2020), Morris et al. (2022), Barry et al. (2023), and Grüning Parache et al. (2024).

Figure 2 demonstrates the complementary explanatory contributions of the three theoretical perspectives to
the organization of parental emotional literacy. Their integration provides a conceptual explanation of how
emotionally responsive caregiving may involve relational security, learned emotional practices, and
developmentally conditioned responses. The relationship represented in the diagram does not indicate that
the theories were experimentally compared or that their relative contributions were statistically estimated.
Instead, the synthesis identifies distinct areas of theoretical relevance. Findings concerning dynamic parent–

318
child emotional socialization provide support for the relational and learning-oriented components of the
framework, while research addressing family circumstances and developmental vulnerability highlights the
importance of contextual interpretation. The synthesis also identifies limitations in transferring findings
between developmental populations. Evidence obtained from preschool children, adolescents, or broader
child samples may inform theoretical relationships but does not automatically establish their applicability
to foundation-phase children aged approximately five to eight years. Furthermore, relational security cannot
independently explain every emotional learning process, and emotional modelling alone does not account
for broader developmental vulnerabilities. The central finding is therefore an integrated theoretical
explanation in which the three perspectives contribute different but interconnected interpretations of
parental emotional literacy. This theoretical organization provides the foundation for identifying the
developmental mechanisms examined in the subsequent subsection.
3.3. Proposed Mechanisms Connecting Parental Emotional Capacities and Child Development
The synthesis identifies four proposed mechanisms connecting parental emotional literacy with children's
emotional development: neurobiological processes, parent–child co-regulation, emotional socialization,
and cognitive processes. These mechanisms represent distinct explanatory pathways through which parental
emotional capacities may be associated with children's developmental adjustment. Neurobiological
processes concern the potential relationships between responsive caregiving, stress-related functioning, and
developing neural systems. Parent–child co-regulation refers to interpersonal processes through which
caregivers support children's emotional responses during interaction. Emotional socialization involves
parental modelling, communication about emotions, and responses to children's emotional experiences.
Cognitive processes concern the development of emotional interpretations, coping-related beliefs, and
adaptive responses to challenging situations. The literature provides different forms of support for these
mechanisms. Luby et al. (2020) contribute a neurodevelopmental perspective, whereas Lunkenheimer et al.
(2020) examine dynamic parent–child interactions. Morris et al. (2022) provide a broader account of
emotion socialization, while Price and Kiel (2022) examine longitudinal relationships involving parental
and child emotional regulation. These studies do not directly test the four mechanisms as a unified
explanatory system. The synthesis therefore identifies a theoretically plausible mechanism structure whose
individual pathways require further empirical examination. Table 3 presents the four mechanisms and
distinguishes their conceptual functions from the evidence available to support their inclusion.
Table 3. Proposed Developmental Mechanisms and Their Evidentiary Boundaries
Relationship to parental
Conceptual process
Relevant evidence
Evidentiary boundary
emotional literacy
Stress-related
and Potential
relevance
of Luby et al. (2020)
No
direct
neural
neurodevelopmental
emotionally
responsive
measurement of parental
functioning
caregiving to developmental
emotional literacy in
functioning
this study
Parent–Child Co- Interpersonal support Emotional regulation and Lunkenheimer et al. The complete proposed
regulation
during
emotional supportive
parental (2020); Price & Kiel mechanism was not
experiences
responses
(2022)
tested
Emotional
Emotional
Awareness, understanding, Morris et al. (2022); Evidence on specific
Socialization
modelling,
expression, and regulation
Havighurst et al. processes does not
communication, and
(2025)
validate the complete
guidance
framework
Cognitive
Emotional
Emotional
understanding Price & Kiel (2022); Cognitive mediation has
Processes
interpretation
and and regulation
Morris et al. (2022)
not been established for
coping-related
the proposed framework
cognition
Source: Conceptual synthesis informed by Luby et al. (2020), Lunkenheimer et al. (2020), Price and Kiel (2022), Morris et al.
(2022), and Havighurst et al. (2025).
Proposed
mechanism
Neurobiological
Processes

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Table 3 distinguishes the four mechanisms according to their explanatory functions and evidentiary
limitations. The synthesis indicates that neurobiological explanations concern a different level of analysis
from interpersonal co-regulation, although these processes may be developmentally interconnected. Coregulation emphasizes immediate emotional exchanges between caregivers and children, whereas
emotional socialization describes broader patterns through which children encounter emotional
expressions, explanations, and behavioral responses. Cognitive processes concern the interpretation of
emotional experiences and the development of coping-related understanding. The evidence indicates that
these processes are relevant to parent–child emotional development, but the reviewed studies differ in
populations, research designs, and outcome measures. Consequently, the relationships cannot be combined
into a single measured developmental effect. In particular, neurodevelopmental research cannot establish
that parental emotional literacy directly changes specific neural structures without appropriate
measurements. Similarly, longitudinal associations between emotion regulation and child anxiety do not
independently demonstrate that co-regulation mediates all proposed developmental outcomes. The
synthesis therefore identifies four candidate mechanisms rather than four empirically verified causal
pathways. Their inclusion provides an explanatory structure for examining how parental emotional
capacities may relate to developmental protection. The next subsection extends this analysis by identifying
the proposed intermediate protective pathways and distinguishing them from potential psychological
outcomes.
3.4. Proposed Protective Pathways and Psychological Outcomes
The synthesis identifies four proposed protective pathways through which parental emotional literacy may
contribute to children's developmental adjustment: attachment security, emotional competence, social
competence, and cognitive resilience. Attachment security concerns the development of supportive
relational expectations and emotional safety within caregiver–child relationships. Emotional competence
encompasses children's developing abilities to recognize, express, understand, and regulate emotions.
Social competence involves interpersonal communication, cooperation, and participation in relationships
with peers and others. Cognitive resilience concerns adaptive interpretation, problem-solving, and copingrelated responses to developmental challenges. These four pathways are conceptually associated with four
potential psychological outcomes: reduced vulnerability to anxiety and depressive symptoms, stronger
emotional regulation, improved psychological well-being, and greater resilience to stressors. Research on
emotional competence and social development supports the relevance of these constructs, while studies of
parental emotion regulation and child anxiety provide evidence concerning more specific relationships
(Denham et al., 2020; Price & Kiel, 2022; Morris et al., 2022). Nevertheless, the reviewed evidence does
not establish that the proposed pathways operate as empirically confirmed mediators between parental
emotional literacy and children's mental health. Figure 3 presents the conceptual sequence connecting
parental capacities, developmental mechanisms, protective pathways, and potential psychological
outcomes.

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Figure 3. Proposed Developmental Pathways Linking Parental Emotional Literacy to Children's Emotional Well-Being
Source: Conceptual synthesis informed by Denham et al. (2020), Luby et al. (2020), Lunkenheimer et al. (2020), Price and Kiel
(2022), and Morris et al. (2022). All directional relationships represent theoretical propositions requiring empirical validation.

Figure 3 illustrates five interconnected conceptual layers, beginning with parental emotional capacities and
progressing through proposed mechanisms, intermediate protective pathways, and potential psychological
outcomes. The diagram distinguishes developmental competencies from mental health outcomes,
preventing the interpretation of improved emotional or social competence as equivalent to clinically verified
reductions in anxiety or depression. For example, emotional competence concerns children's capacity to
recognize and regulate emotional experiences, whereas anxiety and depression involve distinct
psychological constructs requiring appropriate assessment. The literature provides support for investigating
relationships among parenting practices, emotional competence, social development, and child anxiety, but
the available evidence does not establish that all proposed pathways operate simultaneously or with
equivalent explanatory strength. Price and Kiel (2022) offer longitudinal evidence concerning particular
emotional regulation and anxiety relationships, while Denham et al. (2020) and Morris et al. (2022) inform
the developmental interpretation of emotional and social competence. These contributions are
complementary but do not constitute a complete test of the proposed framework. Accordingly, the principal
finding is an integrated pathway structure that separates candidate mechanisms, intermediate developmental
constructs, and potential psychological outcomes. The sequence identifies specific relationships for future
investigation without claiming that preventive effectiveness has been demonstrated.
3.5. Evidence Patterns, Research Comparisons, and Identified Limitations
The synthesis identifies several recurring patterns across the literature concerning parental emotional
regulation, emotional socialization, child development, and psychological adjustment. The reviewed
publications address related constructs through different research approaches, including investigations of
parent–child emotional interactions, longitudinal relationships, developmental processes, family

321
circumstances, and parenting interventions. Lunkenheimer et al. (2020) examine the dynamic organization
of parent–child emotional socialization, whereas Price and Kiel (2022) investigate longitudinal
relationships among maternal and child emotion regulation, maternal emotion socialization, and child
anxiety. Morris et al. (2022) provide broader developmental explanations of emotional socialization, while
Havighurst et al. (2025) examine the theoretical foundations and implementation conditions of an
established emotion-focused parenting program. Other publications contribute perspectives concerning
emotional competence, neurodevelopment, parental fear modelling, and cultural differences in caregiving.
These studies collectively establish the relevance of parental emotional processes but differ in theoretical
emphasis, participant characteristics, and measured outcomes. Their findings therefore cannot be treated as
equivalent evidence for a single integrated intervention effect. To clarify the contribution and limitations of
the evidence, Table 4 maps the principal studies to the conceptual relationships examined in this research.
Table 4. Comparative Evidence Mapping of Studies Relevant to Parental Emotional Literacy
Contribution to the conceptual
Limitation in relation to the
Study
Research focus
synthesis
proposed framework
Lunkenheimer et Dynamic
parent–child Supports
consideration
of Does not validate all four parental
al. (2020)
emotional socialization
interpersonal emotional processes
emotional literacy dimensions as
one construct
Denham et al. Emotional
and
social Informs the conceptual distinction Developmental population and
(2020)
competence in preschool between emotional and social outcomes do not cover the
development
competence
complete framework
Luby et al. (2020)
Early
adversity
and Provides
neurodevelopmental Does not directly measure the
neurodevelopment
context
proposed
parental
emotional
literacy mechanism
Price
&
Kiel Maternal and child emotion Supports investigation of specific Does not test the complete
(2022)
regulation,
emotion longitudinal relationships
multilevel framework
socialization, and anxiety
Morris
et
al. Emotion socialization across Provides broader theoretical support Findings cannot automatically be
(2022)
developmental periods
for emotional socialization
restricted to children aged five to
eight
Nimphy et al. Parent-to-offspring
fear Informs
the
social
learning Fear modelling represents a
(2023)
transmission
through component
narrower process than parental
modelling
emotional literacy
Bozicevic et al. Cross-cultural caregiving
Supports consideration of contextual Does not establish locally observed
(2023)
variation
outcomes for the proposed
framework
Grüning Parache et Family
structure, Identifies contextual influences on Does not establish a causal effect of
al. (2024)
socioeconomic
conditions, psychological adjustment
parental emotional literacy
and mental health
Havighurst et al. Emotion-focused parenting Supports the practical relevance of Effectiveness of an existing
(2025)
intervention
theory
and emotion socialization
intervention does not validate this
implementation
framework
Source: Comparative synthesis of the cited theoretical and empirical literature.

Table 4 demonstrates that the evidence supporting the conceptual framework is distributed across several
research traditions rather than concentrated in studies examining parental emotional literacy as a unified
construct. This distinction is important because findings concerning individual emotional processes cannot
automatically establish relationships among all components of a multidimensional framework. The
reviewed studies differ in developmental populations, research designs, conceptual definitions, and
psychological outcomes, limiting direct comparability. Neurodevelopmental findings, for example, address
biological processes that cannot be interpreted as direct measurements of parental emotional literacy.
Similarly, evidence concerning established parenting programs demonstrates the relevance of emotionfocused approaches without establishing the effectiveness of the particular framework proposed in this
study. The synthesis also identifies an evidentiary limitation concerning numerical claims of prevention
effectiveness. No pooled effect estimate, statistical mediation analysis, or directly measured intervention

322
outcome is established through the present conceptual synthesis. Therefore, quantitative claims cannot be
assigned to the proposed framework on the basis of associations reported in studies examining different
constructs or populations. The central finding is a literature-supported conceptual evidence map that
identifies areas of theoretical convergence alongside important differences in evidentiary scope. These
distinctions clarify which proposed relationships are supported by relevant research and which require
direct investigation among foundation-phase children.
3.6. Contextual, Cultural, and Developmental Conditions Influencing the Framework
The synthesis identifies several contextual conditions relevant to interpreting parental emotional literacy
and children's psychological development. These include family socioeconomic circumstances, cultural
caregiving practices, parental emotional well-being, developmental characteristics, and access to
educational or psychological support. Research concerning family circumstances and cross-cultural
caregiving indicates that emotional development occurs within interconnected relational and environmental
contexts rather than being determined exclusively by individual parenting characteristics (Bozicevic et al.,
2023; Grüning Parache et al., 2024). The reviewed literature also indicates that emotional expression,
parental responsiveness, and expectations concerning children's emotional behavior may differ across
family and cultural settings. These variations are especially relevant to foundation-phase children aged
approximately five to eight years because developmental capacities for emotional recognition,
communication, and regulation continue to emerge during this period. The synthesis therefore identifies
contextual conditions as potential influences on the interpretation and applicability of parental emotional
literacy. However, no country-specific field observations, family interviews, socioeconomic comparisons,
or cross-cultural subgroup analyses were conducted in this study. Consequently, contextual differences are
identified through published literature rather than measured as relationships within a newly recruited
population. Table 5 presents the principal contextual conditions and their implications for interpreting the
proposed framework.
Table 5. Contextual and Developmental Conditions Relevant to Parental Emotional Literacy
Contextual
Evidence-based consideration
Relevance to the framework
Limitation
condition
Socioeconomic
Family resources and stressors may Contextualizes
caregiver No
socioeconomic
circumstances
influence
developmental resources
and
children's subgroup comparison was
experiences
emotional adjustment
conducted
Cultural caregiving Emotional expression and responses Supports culturally sensitive No
country-specific
practices
may differ across cultural settings
interpretation
of
parental cultural
effects
were
emotional literacy
measured
Parental emotional Caregiver emotional functioning Informs the interpretation of No parental psychological
well-being
may be relevant to parent–child emotional
regulation
and assessment was conducted
interactions
responsiveness
Developmental
Emotional capacities change across Supports
age-sensitive No
developmental
characteristics
childhood
interpretation for children aged trajectories were directly
five to eight
measured
Educational
Family–school relationships may Provides a basis for considering No
school-based
environments
influence
opportunities
for parent education and school intervention was evaluated
emotional support
collaboration
Access to support Availability of educational and Contextualizes
potential No service-access data
services
psychological resources may vary implementation conditions
were collected
across communities
Source: Conceptual synthesis informed by Bozicevic et al. (2023), Grüning Parache et al. (2024), Morris et al. (2022), and
Havighurst et al. (2025).

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Table 5 demonstrates that parental emotional literacy must be interpreted in relation to developmental,
relational, cultural, and socioeconomic circumstances. The synthesis identifies two principal contextual
distinctions. First, emotional responsiveness cannot be assumed to have an identical behavioral expression
across families because cultural expectations and communication practices may influence how emotional
support is expressed and understood. Second, children's psychological adjustment cannot be attributed
exclusively to parental emotional capacities because broader environmental resources and developmental
vulnerabilities may also contribute to emotional experiences. These distinctions are consistent with research
examining caregiving across cultural settings and the relationships between family circumstances and
psychological well-being. Havighurst et al. (2025) further identify family, organizational, and sociocultural
conditions as relevant to the implementation of emotion-focused parenting programs. Nevertheless,
evidence concerning established programs does not establish that the proposed parental emotional literacy
framework operates identically across different populations. The available literature therefore supports the
identification of contextual conditions without providing statistical estimates of their moderating effects.
The resulting finding is that cultural responsiveness, developmental appropriateness, and sensitivity to
family circumstances are necessary considerations for interpreting the framework. These conditions also
identify areas requiring attention in future research involving clearly defined populations, educational
environments, and culturally appropriate assessments.
3.7. Integrated Conceptual Findings in Relation to the Research Questions
The integration of findings across the preceding subsections produces a multilevel conceptual framework
connecting parental emotional capacities, theoretical explanations, developmental mechanisms, protective
pathways, and potential psychological outcomes. The first research question concerns how parental
emotional literacy can be understood through awareness, understanding, expression, and regulation. The
synthesis addresses this question by identifying four interrelated capacities and distinguishing their
conceptual functions within parent–child emotional interactions. The second research question concerns
the explanatory contributions of attachment theory, social learning theory, and developmental
psychopathology. The synthesis identifies their complementary relevance to relational security, emotional
learning, developmental vulnerability, and protective processes. The third research question concerns the
potential implications of parental emotional literacy for children's emotional well-being and preventive
educational support. The findings indicate that four proposed mechanisms—neurobiological processes,
parent–child co-regulation, emotional socialization, and cognitive processes—may be linked to attachment
security, emotional competence, social competence, and cognitive resilience. These relationships provide a
theoretical basis for considering children's psychological adjustment but do not establish clinical prevention
effectiveness.
The principal contribution lies in organizing theoretically related constructs into a coherent explanatory
framework rather than establishing new statistical associations or experimentally verified developmental
effects. The synthesis also identifies important relationships among its findings. Emotional awareness,
understanding, expression, and regulation describe parental capacities; the three theoretical perspectives
explain different aspects of these capacities; and the proposed mechanisms specify potential processes
through which parental practices may relate to children's developmental adjustment. Attachment security,
emotional competence, social competence, and cognitive resilience represent intermediate protective
constructs rather than direct evidence of reductions in anxiety or depressive symptoms. Furthermore,
cultural practices, family circumstances, and developmental characteristics influence how the framework
should be interpreted and may condition its applicability. The resulting conceptual organization therefore
integrates established areas of developmental research while retaining the distinction between relevant

324
evidence and untested propositions. Figure 4 presents this integrated framework, including the contextual
conditions that inform interpretation. The findings provide a structured basis for subsequent empirical
investigation without claiming observed protective effects among foundation-phase children.

Figure 4. Integrated Conceptual Framework of Parental Emotional Literacy and Potential Developmental Protection
Source: Integrated conceptual synthesis informed by Denham et al. (2020), Luby et al. (2020), Lunkenheimer et al. (2020),
Morris et al. (2022), Price and Kiel (2022), and Havighurst et al. (2025). Arrows indicate proposed theoretical relationships
rather than statistically confirmed causal effects.

Figure 4 illustrates the integrated relationships among the five principal components of the proposed
parental emotional literacy framework. The upper layer identifies three theoretical foundations that inform
the conceptual understanding of parental emotional capacities. The subsequent layers distinguish four
parental emotional literacy dimensions, four candidate developmental mechanisms, four protective
pathways, and four potential psychological outcomes. Contextual and developmental conditions are
included as interpretive considerations because emotional caregiving and psychological adjustment may
differ across families, developmental stages, and educational environments. The diagram provides a
structured representation of the synthesis rather than a statistical pathway model. Its arrows illustrate
proposed relationships and should not be interpreted as evidence that each dimension influences only one
mechanism or that the suggested pathways have been empirically confirmed. In particular, the framework
does not demonstrate that parental emotional literacy independently prevents anxiety or depression among
foundation-phase children. Its contribution is to identify theoretically connected constructs and distinguish
potential protective processes from clinically established outcomes. The resulting conceptual model
addresses the research questions through an integrated explanation of parental emotional capacities,
developmental processes, and contextual influences. Further empirical investigation is necessary to
examine the strength, direction, and developmental applicability of the proposed relationships.

325
4. DISCUSSION

The discussion critically interprets the conceptual synthesis by examining why parental emotional literacy
may contribute to children's emotional adjustment, how the proposed relationships can be explained through
the three theoretical perspectives, and under what developmental and contextual circumstances their
relevance may vary. Rather than treating the proposed framework as evidence of preventive effectiveness,
the analysis evaluates its explanatory contribution, its relationship to previous scholarship, and the
limitations that must be addressed before empirical applications can be justified. Particular attention is given
to distinguishing parental emotional capacities from child-level developmental outcomes, examining
competing explanations, and considering the educational implications of a framework that has not yet
undergone empirical validation.
4.1. Theoretical Significance of Parental Emotional Literacy as a Multidimensional Protective
Construct
The first objective of this study concerns how parental emotional literacy can be conceptually understood
as a potential protective factor against anxiety and depression among foundation-phase children. The
significance of the proposed framework lies not in identifying emotional awareness, understanding,
expression, and regulation as previously unknown parenting capacities, but in examining whether their
integration provides a more coherent explanation of emotional support than an isolated focus on individual
parenting behaviours. Denham et al. (2020) discussed emotional competence in relation to children's social
development, whereas Lunkenheimer et al. (2020) examined dynamic parent–child emotional processes,
emphasizing the relational character of emotional socialization. Price and Kiel (2022) investigated
longitudinal relationships among maternal emotion regulation, emotion socialization, and child anxiety,
demonstrating the relevance of examining parental and child emotional processes together. Morris et al.
(2022) extended this developmental discussion by considering emotional socialization across childhood
and adolescence. These contributions provide a substantial foundation for the present conceptual synthesis,
but their different analytical emphases reveal a conceptual difficulty: parental emotional capacities,
parenting practices, child emotional competencies, and psychological outcomes are related constructs that
cannot be treated as interchangeable. The proposed framework responds to this difficulty by positioning
parental emotional literacy as an organizing construct whose dimensions may influence relational practices
through distinguishable but interacting mechanisms. This interpretation extends previous scholarship by
separating what parents are theoretically capable of doing from how those capacities may be expressed in
interactions and how such interactions might relate to children's adjustment. The distinction is consequential
because emotional awareness alone does not guarantee sensitive parental responses, just as emotional
regulation does not necessarily imply emotionally supportive communication. A parent may recognize a
child's distress but respond in ways that discourage emotional expression, while another may maintain
behavioural composure without accurately interpreting the child's emotional needs. The framework
therefore challenges any assumption that isolated emotional competencies necessarily produce beneficial
developmental outcomes. Its contribution is an explanatory proposition concerning the coordination of
parental capacities, not evidence that all four dimensions operate equally or independently. Future research
must determine whether these dimensions are empirically distinguishable, whether their interactions

326
improve developmental explanations, and whether they predict outcomes beyond established measures of
parenting sensitivity and emotional socialization.
4.2. Integrating Attachment Theory, Social Learning Theory, and Developmental Psychopathology
The integration of attachment theory, social learning theory, and developmental psychopathology addresses
the theoretical objective of explaining how parental emotional capacities may operate through relational,
behavioural, and developmental processes. Attachment theory offers an account of why emotionally
responsive caregiving may acquire psychological significance: repeated interactions contribute to children's
expectations concerning caregiver availability and relational security. Social learning theory addresses a
different explanatory question by considering how children acquire emotional practices through
observation, modelling, communication, and guided participation. Developmental psychopathology
broadens these explanations by emphasizing that similar experiences may have different consequences
depending on developmental timing, individual characteristics, and surrounding conditions. Contemporary
research illustrates the importance of distinguishing these explanatory levels. Lunkenheimer et al. (2020)
investigated dynamic parent–child interactions, while Morris et al. (2022) examined broader emotional
socialization processes. Price and Kiel (2022) investigated the relationship between maternal and child
emotional regulation and anxiety, whereas Barry et al. (2023) discussed developmental psychopathology as
an approach to understanding psychological development through interacting processes. The present
framework extends these perspectives by suggesting that attachment-related security may influence the
context in which emotional learning occurs, while repeated emotional learning experiences may contribute
to capacities that become relevant under conditions of developmental stress. This proposed interaction is
more informative than presenting three theories as independent explanations of the same phenomenon.
Nonetheless, theoretical integration creates a risk of conceptual overlap. Parental responsiveness, emotion
coaching, and co-regulation can describe aspects of the same interaction even though different theories
assign them different explanatory functions. Without precise operational definitions, the framework could
appear comprehensive while offering limited discriminating power. Theoretical adequacy therefore depends
on identifying what each perspective explains that the others do not. Attachment theory contributes
relational expectations; social learning theory contributes processes of behavioural acquisition;
developmental psychopathology contributes developmental variability and contextual risk. The conceptual
contribution emerges from their differentiated interaction, whereas empirical confirmation requires
evidence capable of distinguishing these pathways rather than assuming that their coexistence demonstrates
causal integration.
4.3. Interpreting the Proposed Mechanisms and Their Evidentiary Boundaries
A central interpretive issue concerns whether the mechanisms included in the proposed framework should
be regarded as established explanations or provisional pathways requiring verification. The distinction is
particularly important for neurobiological mechanisms, because research concerning responsive parenting,
early adversity, and neural development does not automatically demonstrate that parental emotional
literacy, as defined in this article, produces specific neurological changes. Luby et al. (2020) examined
neurodevelopmental processes associated with early-life adversity and sensitive developmental periods,
providing a relevant foundation for considering how early environments may matter for developmental
functioning. This literature supports the plausibility of relationships between caregiving environments and
neurodevelopment but cannot independently verify the complete sequence proposed here. In contrast,
Lunkenheimer et al. (2020) investigated interpersonal emotional processes that offer a more direct basis for
examining how regulation is coordinated between parents and children. Morris et al. (2022) discussed the

327
socialization of emotion through parenting practices, while Price and Kiel (2022) investigated longitudinal
relationships connecting maternal emotional functioning and child anxiety. These studies differ in their
constructs, methods, and explanatory levels, making it inappropriate to merge their conclusions into a single
verified causal pathway. The present synthesis extends their collective relevance by distinguishing
neurobiological, co-regulatory, emotional-socialization, and cognitive processes as candidate mechanisms.
Yet this differentiation also exposes an important conceptual challenge: mechanisms may operate
reciprocally rather than sequentially. A child's emotional responses may influence parental regulation, just
as parental responses may influence the child's subsequent emotional experiences. Likewise, emotional
communication can contribute simultaneously to social learning, relational security, and cognitive
interpretation. Cañas et al. (2022), through their examination of parent–child interaction coding, further
illustrates why specific interaction patterns require careful operational interpretation rather than broad
attribution to parental competence. The proposed model should therefore be interpreted as an explanatory
map of potentially interacting processes, not as a demonstrated chain of events. Its scientific value depends
on enabling researchers to formulate more precise questions about temporal ordering, reciprocal influence,
and the circumstances under which particular mechanisms may become developmentally relevant.
4.4. Protective Pathways, Internalizing Symptoms, and the Limits of Causal Interpretation
The interpretation of parental emotional literacy as a protective factor requires particular caution because
developmental adjustment, emotional competence, internalizing symptoms, and clinically diagnosed
mental health disorders represent different outcomes. The literature incorporated into this synthesis suggests
plausible relationships between supportive parenting and children's emotional functioning, but the nature
of these relationships varies considerably across studies. Price and Kiel (2022) examined longitudinal
associations involving maternal emotional regulation, emotional socialization, and child anxiety. Their
work provides a stronger basis for considering temporal relationships than a purely cross-sectional account,
although longitudinal association alone cannot eliminate all competing explanations. Nimphy et al. (2023)
reviewed parent-to-offspring fear transmission through modelling, offering evidence relevant to emotional
learning while also indicating that the direction and character of parental influence may be more complex
than a uniformly protective interpretation suggests. Denham et al. (2020) addressed emotional competence
and social competence, but improvements in social functioning should not automatically be interpreted as
reductions in clinically diagnosed anxiety or depression. Similarly, Havighurst et al. (2025) discussed the
theoretical and practical foundations of an established parenting programme; this does not establish that the
newly synthesized parental emotional literacy framework has been tested as an equivalent intervention. The
present model extends these perspectives by proposing several intermediate protective pathways rather than
treating reduced psychological difficulties as an immediate consequence of parental competence. This
distinction matters because children's emotional adjustment may be influenced by temperament, school
experiences, socioeconomic adversity, and other developmental circumstances that operate independently
of, or interact with, parental characteristics. The framework consequently challenges a simplified
protective-factor assumption in which emotionally competent parenting is expected to generate uniformly
positive outcomes. Attachment security, emotional competence, social competence, and cognitive resilience
should instead be examined as possible intermediate constructs whose relationships with subsequent
psychological adjustment remain conditional. A defensible interpretation is that parental emotional literacy
may contribute to developmental resources associated with emotional well-being. Whether these resources
reduce the likelihood, severity, or persistence of specific internalizing difficulties remains a separate
empirical question requiring age-appropriate outcome measures and longitudinal or intervention-based
evaluation.

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4.5. Developmental Specificity and the Challenge of Applying Broader Evidence to FoundationPhase Children
The developmental focus on children aged approximately five to eight years raises questions about how
findings obtained from different childhood and adolescent populations should inform an integrative
framework for the foundation phase. Emotional awareness, verbal communication, cognitive appraisal, and
self-regulation undergo developmental changes, making it problematic to assume that mechanisms
identified in older populations operate identically during the earliest years of formal schooling. Denham et
al. (2020) addressed emotional competence during preschool development, providing a relevant
developmental foundation while not directly encompassing all experiences of foundation-phase children.
Morris et al. (2022) examined emotion socialization across childhood and adolescence, enabling broader
theoretical comparisons but requiring caution when applying general developmental observations to a
narrower age group. Price and Kiel (2022) focused on relationships involving maternal emotional regulation
and child anxiety, whereas Nimphy et al. (2023) synthesized evidence concerning fear transmission in early
life. These studies contribute complementary knowledge, but their different emphases cannot substitute for
direct examination of every proposed framework component among five- to eight-year-olds.
Developmental specificity also complicates the assumption that effective emotional regulation necessarily
resembles independent self-control. During the foundation phase, children's capacity to interpret emotional
experiences and employ coping strategies may depend on communication abilities, available support, and
the demands of particular situations. An exclusive emphasis on independent regulation risks
underestimating the developmental importance of supportive interpersonal processes. The proposed
framework therefore extends previous discussions by treating co-regulation as a potentially continuing
relational process rather than merely a preliminary stage that must disappear as children become more
competent. This interpretation also permits consideration of variation in communication styles,
developmental pace, and support needs without equating difference with psychological dysfunction. Its
limitation is that these developmental qualifications have not been tested within the model itself. The
framework consequently provides a rationale for age-sensitive research designs, but it cannot establish
developmental thresholds, normative emotional profiles, or intervention effects for foundation-phase
children without appropriately designed empirical studies.
4.6. Cultural, Family, and Educational Conditions as Boundaries of the Framework
The second research question concerns how culturally grounded approaches may strengthen parent–child
emotional interactions, particularly in relation to the Nigerian context mentioned in the original manuscript.
This question cannot be answered through claims of observed Nigerian parenting practices because the
present article does not report original fieldwork, interviews, or context-specific intervention outcomes. Its
contribution is instead to clarify why cultural and contextual conditions should be treated as potential
influences on the interpretation and application of parental emotional literacy. Bozicevic et al. (2023)
examined cross-cultural differences in early caregiving between the United Kingdom and India,
demonstrating the importance of attending to variation in caregiving practices rather than assuming that
one behavioural expression necessarily carries the same meaning across settings. Grüning Parache et al.
(2024) investigated family structure, socioeconomic status, and childhood mental health, highlighting the
relevance of family circumstances when interpreting developmental adjustment. Morris et al. (2022)
provided a broader account of emotional socialization that can inform culturally responsive examination of
parenting practices, while Havighurst et al. (2025) discussed factors affecting the implementation and
effectiveness of an emotion-focused parenting programme. Together, these contributions challenge the
assumption that a theoretically coherent parenting framework can be transferred between social

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environments without further examination. Emotional support may be expressed through verbal discussion,
nonverbal responsiveness, family routines, or forms of interpersonal guidance whose meanings depend on
relational expectations and cultural practices. Structural conditions can also constrain caregivers'
opportunities to provide consistent emotional support, regardless of their individual competencies. The
proposed framework therefore extends parental emotional literacy beyond an exclusively individual-level
explanation by identifying context as a potential condition shaping how emotional capacities are expressed.
However, the available synthesis does not justify selecting a particular cultural practice as uniquely
protective or attributing specific emotional outcomes to Nigerian families. Culturally grounded application
requires context-specific evidence, participation by families and educators, and careful differentiation
between cultural variation and barriers arising from unequal access to resources. The Nigerian focus should
consequently be interpreted as a proposed direction for future contextual validation rather than as an
empirically investigated setting in the present study.
4.7. Scientific Contribution, Educational Implications, and Priorities for Future Validation
The overall contribution of this conceptual synthesis concerns the development of a structured explanation
that can support more precise empirical investigation and potentially inform educational approaches to
children's emotional well-being. Existing scholarship establishes the importance of examining emotional
competence, parenting interactions, emotional socialization, and developmental adjustment, but it does so
through distinct theoretical and methodological perspectives (Denham et al., 2020; Lunkenheimer et al.,
2020; Price & Kiel, 2022; Morris et al., 2022). Havighurst et al. (2025) provides a programme-oriented
perspective, whereas Santana-Ferrándiz et al. (2025) examines parental sensitivity and socioemotional
development from several explanatory viewpoints. Gebre et al. (2025) adds an educational perspective
concerning teachers' socioemotional competence and student engagement. These contributions support
consideration of emotional development across family and educational contexts, but they do not establish
that the particular parental emotional literacy model proposed in this article has demonstrated effectiveness.
The framework's theoretical contribution is to make explicit a set of relationships that can be investigated
rather than leaving parental emotional competence as a broad explanatory label. Its educational implications
must be interpreted within the same evidentiary limits. Schools may use established approaches to
strengthen communication with families, encourage developmentally appropriate emotional support, and
facilitate referral to qualified professionals when children exhibit persistent difficulties. Such practices
should not be presented as validated applications of the new model unless they are independently evaluated.
A more rigorous application pathway would begin with operational definitions and content validation of
the four parental capacities, followed by investigation of their relationships with observable parenting
practices and child-level outcomes. Longitudinal studies could examine reciprocal relationships and
temporal ordering, while intervention research could assess whether programmes explicitly targeting these
capacities produce changes beyond existing parenting support approaches. Cross-cultural research would
be necessary to determine whether the framework remains conceptually meaningful across different
caregiving environments. The central scientific implication is therefore methodological as well as
theoretical: the proposed model offers a basis for developing falsifiable propositions, examining competing
explanations, and distinguishing plausible developmental mechanisms from demonstrated prevention
effects. Its value will ultimately depend on whether subsequent evidence confirms, modifies, or challenges
the relationships advanced in this synthesis.

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5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1. Conclusions
1. Core Finding and Conceptual Answer. The principal conclusion of this study is that parental
emotional literacy can be conceptualized as a potentially important, but not independently sufficient,
contributor to emotional protection during the foundation phase of childhood. The integrative
framework explains how parental emotional capacities may operate through relational, behavioural,
cognitive, and developmental processes associated with children's emotional adjustment. Its
contribution is an organized theoretical explanation of potential protective relationships rather than
empirical proof that parental emotional literacy prevents anxiety or depression. The proposed model
consequently offers a conceptual answer to the primary research question while recognizing that its
specific pathways and outcomes remain unvalidated.
2. Theoretical Contribution. The study contributes to educational and developmental psychology by
integrating attachment theory, social learning theory, and developmental psychopathology into a
multilevel conceptual framework. Its originality lies in distinguishing parental emotional capacities,
candidate mechanisms, intermediate protective pathways, and proposed psychological outcomes while
clarifying how these components may interact. This theoretical organization extends existing
discussions of emotion socialization and parenting by identifying relationships that can be formulated
as empirically testable propositions. The framework does not establish a new causal theory or validated
measurement instrument, but it provides a structured basis for investigating whether parental emotional
literacy contributes explanatory value beyond previously established parenting constructs.
3. Educational and Practical Implications. The framework has potential implications for parent
education, early childhood educational support, and collaboration between families and schools. Its
principal practical value is to encourage developmentally appropriate attention to parental emotional
awareness, understanding, expression, and regulation without treating caregivers as the sole
determinants of children's psychological outcomes. Educational stakeholders may use the framework
to inform future programme design, professional dialogue, and context-sensitive support planning. Any
application should remain consistent with established safeguarding practices, respect developmental
and cultural variation, and distinguish educational emotional support from clinical assessment or
treatment. Its relevance to Nigerian and other cultural contexts requires locally grounded investigation
before specific implementation recommendations can be justified.
4. Limitations and Future Research Agenda. This study is limited by its non-systematic narrative
conceptual approach, reliance on previously published literature, variation in the populations and
research designs represented by the cited sources, and absence of original empirical validation. The
proposed dimensions and pathways have not been tested as a complete model, and no direct evidence
is presented concerning their preventive effectiveness among foundation-phase children. The
geographical scope also remains primarily conceptual, with no original Nigerian or South African field
data used to establish contextual differences. Future research should prioritize construct validation,
longitudinal examination of developmental pathways, culturally responsive investigation, and
controlled evaluation of interventions derived from the framework. These studies are necessary to
determine whether the conceptual relationships remain valid under empirical examination.

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5.2. Recommendations
Future research should operationalize the four dimensions of parental emotional literacy through
clearly defined and developmentally appropriate indicators, followed by expert evaluation and
empirical testing of their measurement properties. Longitudinal investigations involving
foundation-phase children, caregivers, and educators should examine the direction and strength of
associations among parental emotional capacities, parent–child interaction processes, emotional
competence, and internalizing symptoms. Cross-cultural studies, including research in Nigerian
and South African educational contexts, should investigate how family practices, language,
socioeconomic circumstances, and school environments influence these relationships. Subsequent
intervention studies should compare programmes informed by the proposed framework with
established parenting support approaches, employing validated outcome measures and appropriate
comparison groups. Such investigations would provide the evidence needed to refine the
conceptual model, establish its boundaries, and determine whether it offers practical benefits
beyond existing theoretical and educational approaches.
Ethical & Author Statements
CRediT Statement: Judith Ngunan Age: Conceptualization, Theoretical Framework, Methodology, Investigation
(Literature-Based), Formal Analysis, Writing – Original Draft, Project Administration. Susan Thuketana:
Conceptualization, Theoretical Interpretation, Methodology, Validation, Writing – Review & Editing, Supervision. Both
authors reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript.
Conflict of Interest: The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest related to this research, its interpretation, or
publication.
Funding: This research received no external funding from governmental agencies, commercial organizations, or non-profit
institutions.
Data Availability Statement (Data Policy): This study is based on a conceptual synthesis of previously published
theoretical and empirical literature concerning parental emotional literacy, emotional socialization, attachment
relationships, and children's psychological adjustment. No original participant-level datasets, interviews, questionnaires,
classroom observations, or experimental measurements were generated. The scholarly sources supporting the conceptual
framework are identified in the reference list. Accordingly, no primary research dataset is available for public deposition.
The conceptual relationships and theoretical interpretations are presented within the manuscript.
Ethical Approval and Informed Consent: This study involved the analysis and synthesis of previously published
scholarly literature and did not involve direct recruitment, interaction, or intervention with human participants. No primary
data were collected from children, parents, teachers, or clinical populations. Consequently, participant informed consent
was not applicable. No institutional ethical approval number is reported. The study acknowledges the importance of child
protection, developmental sensitivity, cultural considerations, and appropriate distinctions between educational emotional
support and clinical mental health assessment.
AI Policy: Artificial Intelligence (AI) tools, including large language models, were used to support language editing,
grammatical refinement, and manuscript organization. AI-generated suggestions were subject to critical evaluation and
verification by the authors. AI tools were not used to fabricate empirical data, generate participant responses, misrepresent
research findings, or replace the authors' scholarly interpretation. The authors retain full responsibility for the accuracy,
originality, integrity, and final content of the manuscript.

.

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